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Abstract This study aims to improve the combined energy efficiency of data center cooling systems and heating/cooling systems in surrounding premises by implementing a modular cooling approach on a 42 U IT rack. The cooling solution uses a close-coupled technique where the servers are air-cooled, and the air in turn is cooled within the rack enclosure using an air-to-refrigerant heat exchanger. The refrigerant passively circulates in a loop as a thermosyphon, making the system self-sustaining during startup and shutdown, self-regulating under varying heat loads, and virtually maintenance-free by eliminating mechanical parts (other than the cabinet fans). A heat load range of 2 kW–7.5 kW is tested on a prototype system. Experimental results reveal stable thermosyphon operation using R1233zd(E) as the working fluid, a maximum evaporator pressure drop of 21.5 kPa at the highest heat load and a minimum thermosyphon resistance of 6.8 mK/W at a heat load of 5.7 kW. The air temperature profile across the load banks (server simulators) and evaporator follow the same profiles with varying heat loads. Heat losses from the cabinet due to natural convection and radiation are of the order of several Watts for heat loads below 4 kW and rise sharply to 1 kW at the highest heat load tested. The system time constant is determined to be 25 min. The heat recovery process can be financially and environmentally beneficial depending on the downstream application. 

Abstract The energy demands from data centers contribute greatly to water scarcity footprint and carbon emissions. Understanding the use of on-site renewable power generation is an important step to gain insight into making data centers more sustainable. This novel study examines the impact of on-site solar or wind energy on data center water scarcity usage effectiveness (WSUE) and carbon usage effectiveness (CUE) at a U.S. county scale for a given data center size, water consumption level, and energy efficiency. The analysis uncovers combinations of specific metrics associated with grid-based carbon emissions and water scarcity footprint that enable predictions of the improvements anticipated when implementing on-site solar or wind energy. The implementation of on-site renewables has the most benefit in reducing carbon footprint in areas with high existing grid-based emissions such as the western side of the Appalachian Mountains (e.g., central and eastern Kentucky). The largest benefit in reducing water scarcity footprint is generally seen in counties with low water scarcity compared to adjacent areas (e.g., northern California). 

Abstract A thermosyphon-based modular cooling approach offers an energy efficient cooling solution with an increased potential for waste heat recovery. Central to the cooling system is an air-refrigerant finned tube heat exchanger (HX), where air is cooled by evaporating refrigerant. This work builds on a previously published two-dimensional (2D) model for the finned-tube HX by updating and validating the model using in-house experimental data collected from the proposed system using R1233zd(E) as the working fluid. The results show that key system variables such as refrigerant outlet quality, air and refrigerant outlet temperatures, and exchanger duty agree within 20% of their experimental counterparts. The validated model is then used to predict the mean heat transfer coefficient on the refrigerant side for each tube in the direction of airflow, indicating a maximum heat transfer coefficient of nearly 1200 W/(m2 K) for a HX duty of 5.3 kW among the tested cases. The validated model therefore enables accurate predictions of HX performance and provides insights into improving the heat exchange efficiency and the corresponding system performance.